Biological Methods

The methods to tackle problems in the field of biology work almost on the same principles as in any other field of science. Biologists work out the topics and recognize them as problems to be solved. Scientists make keen observations and collect the facts already reported by others. On the basis of these facts, a scientist formulates a tentative statement, called hypothesis. This hypothesis is used of guide further observations and experimentation. This part of the scientific method involves inductive reasoning. In this, a scientist uses isolated facts to reach a general idea that explains a phenomenon. For example, Robert Hooke observed, a thin slice of cork being composed of units, which he called Cells. This led of further observations and experimentation on plant animal material, by M.J Schleiden and T.Schwann, who proposed the cell theory, stating that all forms of life are up of cells.

Levels of Biological Organization

Living organism are highly complex and organized. This complexity and organization is composed of grading of structures with each level based on the one below it, and providing the foundation for the one above it. Life is built on a chemical foundation. This foundation is based on elements, each of which is a unique type of matter. As we know, and atom is the smallest possible unit of an element, which retains all the properties of that element, Further division of this unit produces isolated subatomic particles of which an atom is composed. Atoms may combine in specific ways to form molecules. Simple molecules are formed spontaneously. for example, carbon dioxide. Extremely large and complex molecules are manufactured by living matter ( within the bodies of living organism) The molecules of living matter are mostly based on carbon and provide building blocks of living matter. These are called Organic Molecules. Molecules of different elements comprise a Compound. Along with organic compounds, Inorganic compounds (minerals) are also associated with living organism,for example Human Blood.

Biology And Its Major Fields

Biology is one of the natural sciences, which deals with the things that exhibit the properties of life. Scientist calls these things as "organism". The word biology has been derived from Greek words Bios, life + Logos, discourse, Formerly living organism were classified into two kingdoms i.e plant kingdoms and animal kingdom. The plants were studied under the subdivision BOTANY and the animals were studied under the subdivision Zoology. The latest research has discarded the old concept of two kingdoms of living organism.

The Biology

The biology recalls your previous exposure to biology in early classes. It gives you some novel thoughts of thinking about living things beginning from the molecular levels up to the level of complex organisms. It provides you the basis for systematic observations. Hypotheses, Predictions and experimentation. Finally, this chapter gives you few examples of the endeavors like modern diagnostic, therapeutics control of diseases and techniques like cloning, hydroponics etc, of a number of brilliant biologists.

Bits and Bytes

The microprocessor uses electricity to do its work. Each second, million of electrical on and off signals go to the CPU. The computer turns these into a code of 1's and 0's-- 1 for ON and 0 for OFF. This code uses only two numbers. Since bi- means two, it is called Binary code.
A bit is the smallest piece of information a computer can handle. A bit is either a 1 or a 0. A group of 8 bits is called a Byte. Each character on the computer keyboard has its own special 8-bit pattern of 1's and 0's that makeup its binary code.

Saving and Retrieving Data

When we have done out work on a computer, we may want to keep it for future use. In this case, we will have to save our work onto a floppy disk or hard disk and USB. Otherwise our work will be lost when we switch off the computer.

File
If you have done some written exercises on paper, you will probably keep them in a file or a folder.
Similarly, if we want to save our work done on the computer, we can save it in a file on the disk.
A file cam contain report, drawing or a program. Each file should be given a different name so that we can recognize it later.

Retrieving
To make use of the information already saved on to a disk, we have to retrieve it from the disk. This is like playing a cassette tape to listen to music the music.

Taking Care of Computers

A Computer has no feelings and does not complain. It works quietly and is never tired. But how long it can work for us depends on how well we take care of it. Pupils from different classes share the same computer. Each one is responsible for making sure that his computer is in good working condition. You should always treat the computer with care, keep the computer and workplace clean and follow instruction carefully. You should report a faulty computer to your teacher immediately. The sooner you report it to your teacher, the sooner you will be able to use the computer again.

Power Supply and Ports

At the back of the system unit you would see the power supply and ports. The power supply supplies the fuel (Power) for the computer. It supplies power to the motherboard, the drives and other parts. Another important part is a port.
A port is a connector at the back of a computer where you plug in an external devices such as a mouse, keyboard, monitor printer and other external devices. This allows instructions and data to flow between the computer and the device.

The Hard Drive

A hard drive is a metal disk inside your computer that stores everything that is on your computer. It is normally fixed inside the computer case and cannot be seen. The hard drive is made up of flat round disk which is protected by a metal case. The hard drive is also called the Hard Disk, Hard disk drive or fixed disk.

Storage Devices

Storage Devices are those where computer saves your work and information. Memory and Storage are different. For Example, If you are in math class, you are using your brain for solving math problems---- that is RAM. But if you want to write or store your work you use paper or notebook to pull out information later.
Computers store information in two ways. Information can be stored inside the computer on a Hard disk or stored externally in many ways like Floppy Disk , USB.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Another part of the computer's memory is its ROM. ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The computer will not forget what is in its ROM--even if it is turned off. the information in ROM is put there when the computer is built. It contains facts the computer needs in order to understand your instructions. A part of your brain has a memory that works like ROM. You might forget the grocery list, but as long as you live, you will never forget how to breathe or swallow. Instinct such as those are your brain's ROM.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

Another part of the computer's memory is its ROM. ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The computer will not forget what is in its ROM--even if it is turned off. the information in ROM is put there when the computer is built. It contains facts the computer needs in order to understand your instructions. A part of your brain has a memory that works like ROM. You might forget the grocery list, but as long as you live, you will never forget how to breathe or swallow. Instinct such as those are your brain's ROM.

Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM stands for Random Access Memory. RAM is like you mother giving you a grocery list of milk, bread, and eggs. If you take your list to the store, you will know what yo buy. But if you throw away the list before you get to the store, you may not remember a thing you mother wants. RAM is used for holding programs and data. The contents of RAM are lost when the power of computer system is turned off.

How Computers Remember

Like your brain, the computer also has a memory. In fact, it has different ways of remembering things. One kind of memory is temporary. The computer remembers what you tell it until you turn it off. Then it forgets. Everything you told it is lost. The temporary memory is called RAM
The computer has two kinds of memory chips RAM and ROM.

The Computer's Brain

If you look inside a microcomputer, it may look almost empty. But do not let it fool you. Its tiny parts are more powerful than the giant ENIAC. The computer's main circuit board is called the motherboard. On it are many little chips that look like small lego pieces. Each does a different job.

The CPU
The most important chip inside the computer's case is the CPU, or Central Processing Unit. It is the central and most important component of the system unit. It is the brain of a computer. it directs how information flows in, out, and through the computer. It is also a part that does all the math and other jobs performed by the computer. The CPU is also called the processor or microprocessor.

Information and the Computer

A computer is an information machine. You put information into a computer. Then the computer gives information back to you. Computer performs three operations. The three operations are Input, Process and Output.

INPUT, PROCESS and OUTPUT
Input is information that is put into a computer. The computer receives input through input devices including the keyboard, mouse, joystick and scanner. The CPU process information and sends back output. Output is information that comes out of a computer on output devices like monitor or printer. The monitor shows this output. The printer prints the output on paper.

Hardware and Software

A computer has many parts. These parts are called the Hardware. Some pieces hardware let us talk to the computer or allow the computer to talk to us. When we send information to a computer, it is called INPUT. When a computer send information out through one of its parts, it is called OUTPUT.
The Difference between a computer hardware and software is like the difference between a game and its rules. All the game parts-- the board, cards, markers, and dice-- are like hardware. The rules that tells you how to play the game are like software.
Computer software is an information saved on the diskette. Software can be lists of words or numbers, which we call data. It can also be a computer program stored on a disk. The program is a list of instructions that tell the computer what to do.

The First Computer

Ever Since there have been people, there have also been computers. What were the first computers..? Fingers..! Have you ever used your fingers to add..? The first people did. Even before they had counting words, they used their fingers or pebbles to keep informed about things. Another early computer was the ABACUS. With beads pushed up down the Abacus can add and subtract.

What is Computer..?

A Computer is a machine that can count. It can add and subtract. It can figure out how much money you have after you spent some or earned some. A computer can keep track of things. It can keep a list of your friend's phone numbers or their birthdays. Computer work at high speeds. They can do thousands of problems faster than a person can do one.

Cartels

A Cartels has been defined as " an association of independent undertaking which enforce obligations as to the treatment of output and market, purchase, price calculations or trade terms and therefore, serve to influence the market against the working of free competition.
Through the production quota and price are controlled by the cartel, the units maintain complete freedom of internal management. Thus a cartel is a loose type of horizontal combination formed to eliminate unnecessary and wasteful competition and to secure economies of large scale distribution.

Pools

A pool may be defined as on Association for organization of business established through federation of various units whose member seek control over price by combining some factor in the price making process in a common aggregate and distributing aggregate among the units. The income of combining units may be aggregated, and after deducting the expenses of working the pool, the balance may be divided in a certain proportion. A pooling agreement is always make by member unity producing and dealing in similar products.
So pool is a business federation in which a member of business units combine in order to control prices and eliminate competition among themselves by regulating their total output market or income.

Mail Order Business

The world has now expanded in a way that face to face business become impossible. Development of communication has solved this problem. Communication and Mail services by air, sea and land have provided bright prospectus to business circles. For Instant, FAX is also a developed form of mail. Since recent past, introduction to business through catalogs, magazines and journals has been followed in all developing and developed countries. After having necessary introduction, orders are sent through mail. Products are sent and received by Registered Post. Various forms of mail are as such,play a prominent role in growth of business in present age. The latest mail services is e-mail through computer.

Franchising

Free Trade refers to that state in which there is no restrictions on the movement of goods between countries, placed a view to safeguarding home industries constitute the policy of protection. In the word of Adam smith, the term "free trade" has been used to denote " that system of commercial policy which draws no distinction between domestic and foreign commodities and therefore, neither imposes additional burdens on the latter, nor grants any special favors to the former. Free Trade, However, does not require the removal of all duties on commodities. It only insist that they shall be imposed exclusively for revenue and not at all for protection.

Training Division

The rapid industrilisation of a country demands a sufficient number of skilled labourers, many other under- developed countries, suffers from an acute shortage of this kind of labor force. After the work has been selected and hired for a job, he should be oriented with regard to his duties and company policies. He may need further training to increase his usefulness to the comaony. Even, if the workers are reasonably proficient on the job ther are gaints to be made from a contined training under a well palnned training program.

Inventory Control Division

The main purpose of inventory control is to see that the materials are properly received , stored , protected and issued to the concerned departments or sections as per policy of the enterprise. On recieving the materials they are entered in the Stock Register which is kept usually at the main gate of the Store Room. After making proper entry by the Store Keeper the materials are sent inside the Store Room at the place provided for them. There are seprate sections or areas for different items. There are clerks in those place who maintain bin cards and immediately enter in it and the material so received. When the Store keeper receive requisition, he issue instruction and slip to sectional clerks write diwn in bin cards maintained by them and a balance is made for the material in hand.

Planning and Routing Division

Planning is the part of production control that determines which materials and work are needed in order to produce the products ordered from the manufacturing division. Routing is the part of production control that determines which routes or path the work will take through the factory and where and by whome the procuring shall be done.

Recruitment and Promotion Division

One of the important consideration is personal policy is to devise and workout the way that would assure recruitment and promotion to deserving persons. It is because personal manager knows that one of the motivating factors for employees is an assurance for the better career for them. The hope for earning promotion on the basis of their competency makes the employees work with greater devotion and sincerity. They know that their prospect and fucture promotion lies in their sincere work. This hope creates in them the incentive and interest to work.

Effects of Devaluation

Devaluation lead to higher cost of imports particularly those of industrial raw material, spare parts, inputs for agricultural sectors, machinery, transport equipments defence equipments, main food items like wheat and edible oil. Consequently, the cost of production of domestically produced goods increased. Davluation also increased the burden of foreign debt and its servicing charges as well which, in turn, increased the cost of production for which such loans were extended, their prices increased.

Balance of Payment

International trade and other finanacial dealing between countris make it necessary fir them. In other words, it can be defined simple a record of economic transactions of residents of a country with the rest of the world during a period of one year. It is thus sort of statement of income and expenditure on international account. The main purpose of keeping the record balance of payments is to inform Government of the International postion of the country and to help it reaching decision on monetary and fiscal policy on one hand, and trade and payment question on the other.

Balance of Trade

Balance of Trade is known as the visible balance. This is the relationship between a country's payments  for imports of goods and its reciepts from the export of goods. In other words, Balance of Trade means only the balance between merchandiser trade or visible trade i.e imports and exports of goods. If the value of imports exceeds  the value of exports, we say that the balance of trade is "unfavorable" or is deficit. This debit balance is also known as the trade gap. If the value of exports exceeds the value of imports, we say the balance oftrade is  "favorable" or surplus.

Commercialization

Commercialization refers to full scale manufacturing and marketing of the product. It takes place after analyzing the results of test marketing. Hence commercialization follows after test marketing only. It involves regular production of the commodity for which the company allocates the budget and works at the marketing program.

Test Marketing

Test Marketing is used to minimize the risk of product failure. Moreover, it allows marketing manager to expose a product in a natural marketing environment to obtain a measure of its sales performance. Hence inspire of being expensive, test marketing is carried to avoid great loss due to product failure.

Product Development

Product development carries the study to find out whether it is technically feasible to produce the product and if so at what cost to justify a reasonable price and profit. A working model of photo type is worked out to test its acceptability tangible and intangible attributes and other features that are in consumers mind. Further design and mechanical features of the produce must be liked to wants in market place to assess its overall success. At this stage management must also review copyright packaging and labeling to see that it does not create legal problem. In addition to that the various that will makeup the marketing mix must also be tested.

Business Analysis

Business analysis involves study of pros and cons of the proposed product n the light of market demand firm's objectives, sales costs and profits as well as the capability to manufacture or produce the product within the stipulated period.

Screening Ideas

Ideas so generated require a through evaluation and study to see whether they match the objectives of the enterprise, Hence in the phase of screening ideas, those that do not match enterprise's objectives are rejected. Further, screening product ideas also involves a general assessment of the enterprise's resources. In the process, the largest number of product ideas are rejected due to their being impracticable, unrealistic, or not as per objective of the enterprise.

Idea Generation

Before a new product is introduced, New product ideas can come from several sources, New ideas may come from internal sources: marketing managers, researchers, and other personal of the enterprise, New product ideas may also management consultants, private research organizations and customers.

Product Planning and Development

A business enterprise does have a product policy to guide the product manager to work out this approval towards product planning and development.
Developing and introducing new product is a risky and expensive task. It is risky in he sense that new product may prove a failure between 30% to 90% as per expense quoted by marketing experts. It is expense because it requires a careful process and is time consuming.
The main cause of new product failure is lack of.
But inspire of the risks and expense, new product planning and development is carried to meet need of the time. This is to be so because in the present fast challenging consumers market, failure to introduce new products can also be risky.
Before a new product is introduced, it goes through six phase or stages , which follows , in per post of this blog..... below...

Miscellanous Services

Other functions performed by a Commercial Bank includes, the provision of safety vaults or lockers to keep valuable articles of customers in safe custody, acting as an agent for its customers to buy and self goods and silver securities on their behalf, making and receiving payments on behalf of its depositors and issuing letters of credit, travellers cheques for the convenience of its customers and, and in general, performing all functions which will bring in profits.

Promissory Note

A promissory Note is defined by section 4 of the of the Act as "An Instrument in writing ( not being a bank note or currency note ) containing an un-conditional undertaking, signed by the maker to pay a certain person or to the bearer of the instrument. Thus a promissory note is a promise to pay money or in other words it is an undertaking to pay money.

Life-Style Segmentation

This stresses segmentation on the basis of the distinctive mode of living of segments involving questions regarding how they spend their time, the nature of their interest.

Product Segmentation

This is directed towards differences among the products that comprise markets. This segmentation is less rational approach than market segmentation unless there is a great differences among products involved.

Volume Segmentation

This means segmenting of market seeing the extent of use such heavy, medium, light users and those use do not be the product or one perspective users. Again they are further segmented like that of demographic ways.

Socio-Psychological Segmentation

Social Classes, aggressiveness, submissiveness, degrees of cautiousness and venturesomeness with the value differences determine the segmentation.

Demographic Segmentation

Customs are collected in homogeneous groups under demographic similarities like age , gender , education level , income rate etc etc.

Geographical or Territorial Segmentation

Pakistan can be divided into two distinct regions or geographical segments. One segment can be Rural Markets, while the other can be said to present Urban Market. In the same way Pakistan needs the division in many states or territorial regions, according to areas. This segmentation is very commonly need to allocate the territories to the salesmen.

Concept of Market Segmentation

It is an attempt to escape competition by tailoring company's product to a certain target of the market. Market Segmentation is an attempt to render perfect satisfaction to a limited part of the market.
Market segmentation is the process of dividing a total market into market groups consisting of people who have relatively similar product needs. The purpose is to design a marketing mix that precisely matches the needs to individuals in a selected segmentation process.

Service Industry

The last two decades witnessed the emergence of new phenomenon of the Service Industries. They are common with manufacturing industries in so far as the principles of production and management are concerned. Planning is as important in Banking as in the steel manufacturing. Routing must be a major concern of a Taxi Driver as that in any manufacturing Industry. Scheduling is an overriding phase of Doctors and Accountants as in a production concern and controlling is a common feature of all of us to choose our performance in any field.

Customers

The purpose of business is to create customers. Without customers, of course a business can not exist. Customers are people who want product a service a business offer and have the money to but it. Naturally, businessman produce what people want and sell it at as low price as possible. As a result the forces of competition tend to keep price, costs and profits low, But this is not applicable on monopolies.

School Banking Saving Account

This scheme aims at inculcating the saving habit amongst the school children. Every child can open the account even by his pocket money. The bank keeps a box with Principal/Headmaster who receives and deposits the amount from the children and keep the amount in the box. The representative of the bank come on a particular day in a week and pays to the children if they want and takes the money of the box to the bank. A nominal Interest is paid on these accounts.
Note: Every kind of amount of Interest is Haraam for every person who takes that. According to Islam.

Saving Account

Saving account is the deposit on which the bank no doubt, pays interest but a condition is attached that the amount can be withdrawn from the amount twice a week only. Moreover, a limited amount of money can be withdrawn at a time.
The person who desires to open a saving bank, fills a prescribed form of the bank having rules and regulations of the banking. The prospective amount holder fixes his signature as specimen. After every six month, the bank sends him the detail of deposited and withdrawals during this period called "Bank Statement." The account holder can withdraw money through writing a cheque. Savings accounts are preferred to maintain by service people and the wage earner. These accounts also inculcate saving habit amongst the people.

Home- Saving Deposit

This is the modern kind of bank deposit aiming at the promotion of saving habit amongst the low income group of the people. The bank for the purpose, gives a small box to the customer which locked. The Account holder takes the box to home and drops the small saving in this box from time to time. After a period, the customer goes to the bank with the box, it opened before the bank officer, amount of money is taken out and deposited in his account. A nominal interest is paid on this account. This is the best way to create interest in saving amongst the low income people as well as children.

Fixed Deposit Account

The Account are called " Timer Deposit" or Term Deposite because the money deposited in this account can withdrawn after the passage of time for which it was deposited. Although this period may vary between 3 to 5 years but generally the money is deposited for one year in these accounts. These accounts are suitable for the people who, in addition to security, also want to earn profit over the deposit. Generally, the bank does not allow the account holder to withdraw the amount before the time for which the money was deposited but in special case the permission may be accorded if the account holder for forfeits the interest accrued during the time of deposit.
Note: The amount of interest in Fixed Deposit or any kind of account, The Amount of Interest is HARAAM in Islam.

Current Account

The money deposited in the current account can be withdraw in part or full any time through writing a cheque on the bank concerned. The bank does not pay interest on the current account instead sometimes realize a nominal charge from the customer. These deposits are created in one of the two ways: either by converting cash into demand deposit the same with the bank. The Current Account is an important source for accelerating the velocity if medium of exchange.

Kinds of Accounts

The customers generally deposit their money in the different accounts , following in next post.

Saving Plans

Companies for encouraging saving habits in the employees, take up incentive measures, their savings cause increase in investment, The provision of Provident Fund is good Illustration of this method, generally, company's on affixed rate deduct a sum from employee's salaries and transfer it ti the Fund and it is doubled by adding equal amount from the Company's Resources. This deduction be comes a large sum with profit or interest at the retirement of the employee.

Joining The Large Business

Rewards, promotions, prestige, security are some of the maturating factors with a chance to move around various division and operatives, training and guidance and gaining wholesome experience are other preferable to join large companies for young and educated aspirants. But at the same time sense of insignificance, getting lost in thousands of employees, many policies and other such matters also play deterrent influence on them and thus make them move in the teeth of rivalry. competition and discord. Thus the task in large companies is full of dangers effects and defects.

Joining Small House

Rewards and opportunities are clearly visible and if seized intelligently make you moving on the top in no time but here again one has to be intelligent, hard working and accomplishing to achieve a broad experience in variety of fields to go to the top by sheer will to work hard and competing intelligently, picking up knowledge of purchasing and selling, according and financing and leading the business well to profitable entity with the of course leadership.

Multiple Store

Multiple shops or chain stores is a confirmation of many shops which has one or two commodities of same nature for sale and purchase. This is also established under management and supervision of one person of concern. Each shop in this, has a branch which controls retailing under directive of its Head Office.

Departmental Store

Departmental store stands as a long scale retailing. Actually it is a very big store and can be of sale and purchase. It is established in one surrounding and building and managed by some sign concern. It has separate departments of commodities according to nature. In other words, it can be called a Combination of many shops.

Certificate of Incorporation

The registrar will scrutinize these documents. If he is satisfied that all the papers are in order he will enter the name of the company in the Register maintained by him and will issue a " Certificate of Incorporation". A private Company may commence the business immediately after the Certificate. In the case of a Public Limited Company the issue of the Certificate dost not empower the undertaking to commence business. But the Public Limited Company will further have to submit the following documents to the Registrar.

• A copy of the Prospectus or a Statement in lieu of Prospectus.
• Allotment of shares after the minimum subscription is rendered a Return of Allotment is field.
• A declaration that any Director had paid in cash or the shares which he holds in the same proportion as the public must pay on application and allotment.
  

Installment Selling

A sale written agreement whereby the purchaser gets physical possession of the asset/ property without transfer of title, on payment if initial sum of money called "Down Payment" at the time of signing the agreement and undertakes to pay the balance in a number of fractional payment, termed as "Installment". at regular intervals over a period of time.

One Price Shops

One Price Shop organization deal in a large variety of articles, which are sold at the same price. One price for small and big things is attraction for the consumers. This does not mean that even the purchase price of all the commodities is the same; it differs, but difference is one commodity is compensated by the price of another commodity. The range of difference is not generally wide.

Advantages of Free Trade

1.Utilization of Factors of Production:
Under Free Trade every country specialists in the production of those commodities in which it enjoys the maximum advantages.

2. Extensive Markets:
Since no restrictions are imposed on international trade, the commodities can be exported even to distant places in the world.

3. Geographical Division of Labor:
Free Trade results in the geographical division of labor which benefits all the countries of the world.

4. Benefits to the Consumers:
Under Free Trade the indigenous industries have to compete with the foreign industries, hence they try to sell their product at cheap prices cutting down their production cost.

5. Check Up Monopoly:
As the home industries have to face the competitors of foreign industries, they can not setup monopolistic combines to maximize their profit.

6. Improvement in Production Techniques:
Since the home industries have to face foreign competitors, they are forced to reduce their production cost be effective improvements in Production Techniques.

Free Trade

Free Trade refers to that state in which there is no restrictions on the movement of goods between countries. Restrictions placed with a view to safeguarding home industries constitute the policy of protection. In the words of Adam Smith, the term Free Trade has been used to denote "that system of commercial policy which draws no distinction between domestic and foreign commodities and therefore, neither imposed additional burdens on the latter, nor grants any special favors to the former." Free Trade, however, does not require the removal of all duties on commodities. It only insists that they shall be imposed exclusively for revenue and not at all for protection.

Automation of Production

Computer can control complex industrial processes and even run machine tools. Computer take directions from a blue print and transfer them into instructions that are then fed to machine tools by means of purchased card or magnetic tape.
With the help of computer system we can easily reserve a seat on an airplane, a bed in a hotel or a seat at a baseball game by dialing a telephone number, recording a report of what is available, a selection, and prevailing the operator without credit card number.

Time Rate System

This method of payment is also known as " Day Wage" or "Day Rate". The majority of workers are paid under this plan and this must necessarily be the case wherever work is intermittent in character and not repetitive or when output is not measureable or depends mainly upon factors outside the workers control. Under this plan worker in the same class get the same wages and individual production record are not maintained.

Joint Ventures and Syndicate

When two or more persons agree to do a particular business or to carry out particular contract jointly and form a sort of temporary Partnership with a view to share the profit or loss among them, they are said to have entered into a "Joint Venture". It may be defined thus, "Joint Venture or Joint Trade is a Partnership conferred to a particular adventure, speculation cause to trade or voyage, and in which the particulars either latent or known, use no firm or soul name and incur no responsibility beyond the limits of the adventure".

Business Trust

A trust means a business organization in which the property is vested into the hands of trustees, who manage the company on behalf of the beneficiaries. In this company altogether to form a trust. The companies joining the combination of trust completely lose their entities and are entirely new concern, under a new name is created. Controlling several companies in this manner, the trustees elect a Board of Directors to carry out the combining companies transfer their shares to a joint body established by the them under the Trust agreement in exhange of Trust Certificates.

Partnership Agreement

The following are the main items of Partnership Agreement:

• The name of each partner whether he is a general or limited partner.
• The data and place of partnership.
• The name of the firm.
• The nature of business.
• The duration of partnership, if there is any, or at will.
• How capital is to be provided for and in what proportion.
• Provision of sharing the profit or loss, as the case may be, and the ration of share.
• The management of the firm.
• The keeping of accounts and credit.
• The bank where accounts is to be kept.
• The authority of signing the cheques and important documents.
• Arrangement to provided for death or retirement of any partner.
• Power for arbitration and settlement, if any, dissolution of the firm.
  

Creation of Credit

Creation of credit is one of the most outstanding function of modern banks. The commercial banks create multiple expansion of their bank deposits and due to this have some times been called "Manufacturers of Credit". The notes and currency issued by the Central Bank is not the only form of money.The supply of money also includes the only form of money. The supply of money also includes some sort of credit money. in addition to real cash money.

Memorandum of Association

The Memorandum of Association of a company is its charter, prescribing the company's name, registered office, objects and capital also defining limits and is power. It sets forth the fundamental conditions upon which alone the company is allowed to be incorporated. Conditions which are also introduced alike for the benefit of creditors and the outside public as well as for shareholders. The Memorandum may be altered but only to the extent and in the manner laid down by the Act apart from the statutory powers of alteration, it is non-alterable.

Functions of the Stock Exchange

The following are the functions of the Stock Exchange:

• It provides a market for capital already invested in the form of shares, securities, bonds, debentures etc.
• It facilitates the transfer of investment from one investor to another.
• It serve as a means for disinvestment by accommodating the investors in distress. They can easily encash their holdings through it.
• It facilitates international investment and attract the foreign capital for investment in the economy.
• It maintains a high standard of commercial morality through the rigidity of the rates governing the market operations which creates among both the indigenous and foreign investor.
• The Stock Exchange does not function as a market for new capital but encourages of new capital into industrial and commercial concerns by providing readily indigenous and foreign investors.
• It provides necessary mobility and directs the flow of capital into profitable and successful industrial enterprises by regarding its flow into enterprises with less justification for development.
• It guides to prospective investors by rising trend of prices or falling trend of prices of certain shares and securities.
• It operates under certain rules which govern the transactions affected in it and, as such, the check of forged securities pursuing as guide is eliminated.
  

Stock Exchange

Stock Exchange is an institution which creates contract among the buyer and sellers of shares, sercurities, bonds, and debentures and as such , constitutes the capital market of a country. The shares, securities, bonds, debenture are bought and sold at competitive prices determined under the influence of the their present and prospective earnings.

Micro Financing

Every Country wants to development. and it is also suffering the chronic problem of poverty. If the poor peopleare provided with finance, they have enogh motivation to become self-employed and start cottage industries. This will supplement the large scale industries and other sectors of the economy

Achievement of Economic Growth

When firm increases its expenditure and reduces taxes, businesses start producing more, and more people become employed. With the rise in per capital income, the purchasing power of people increases and the aggregate demand also increases. Therefore, more production and more consumption is a clear indication of economic growth.

Consumer's Behavior

Under Micro-economics, the behavior of the consumer is analyzed according to which consumes his earned income on the daily goods. When a consumer purchases a commodity, he compares the price paid with expected satisfaction from the commodity to be purchased. This aspect of Micro-economics, therefore, includes indifference curve analysis, theory of Utility, demand and its elasticity etc.

Theory of Price

Under this part of Micro-economics, it is analyzed that how are the problems of selection and economy of resources are created due to abundance of wants and scarcity of means..? These problems are solved through the self generating forces of demand and supply in the market system. The theories of demand and supply, in this way, are included in Micro-economics.

Rate of Interest

As the rate of interest increases, saving also increases. When the interest rate increases, the incentive to save increases because by saving people can earn more money. When the interest level decreases, the incentive to save decreases because by saving people will earn less money and will prefer spending rather than saving.

Concept of Reserve Price

The buyers want to buy the good and services at the cheapest prices. The seller want to sell their good and services at the highest price. The interaction of these forces in the market comes at equilibrium where goods and services are traded at equilibrium prices. Sometimes, in the market sellers get lower prices for goods and sometimes they get higher prices for their goods. The minimum price at which are willing to sell serve as a benchmark for them and is referred to as "Reserve Price". Therefore, reserve price is not the market price but is a price where sellers will not want to exhaust their supply. It is sometimes equal to market price and sometimes it is not equal to market price.

The Substitution Effect

The Substitution Effect is the effect only to the relative price change. We compute it by finding the combination that would make the consumer just as happy as before the price change, but if they had to make their choice faced with new prices. To find this point we consider a budget line characterized by new prices but with a level of income such that it is tangent to the initial indifference curve.

Theory of Trade Cycle

Trade Cycle refer to the fluctuation in the level national income. National incom fluctuates from time to time. In other words, some time the economy is in the grip of boom but next time in the grip of slump. It is  analyzed under Macro-Economics that what is the nature, causes and effects of trade cycles....?

Cyclical Unemployment

As the word suggest, cyclical unemployment is due to changes in the business cycles. In expansion, cyclical unemployment is zero or close. In recession, there are more people unemployed. The rate of cyclical unemployment depends upon the fluctuations in the business cycle.

Structural Unemployment

As the structure of economy changes, the types of jobs also changes. Some jobs are created and some jobs are destroyed. For example, if a country's economy changes from agriculture to industry, more jobs are created in the industrial sector and fewer jobs are created in the agricultural sector. Therefore, those who can change and adopt and learn new skills remain employed and other become unemployed.

Frictional Unemployment

This type of unemployment arise because there are always some new people entering and leaving the labor force. Some new businesses start their operations and few old ones shutdown. Some people have found a job, but they are still waiting and searching to find a higher paid job. When people are unemployed due the reason mentioned above, they are said to be fictionally

Isocost Lines

The Iso-cost line plays an important role in determining the combination of factors that the firm will choose for production. An Iso-cost line is defined as a curve representing various combination of two factors, which the firm can buy with given outlay.
Higher Iso-cost lines represent higher outlays (total cost) and lower isocost lines represent lower outlays. The Iso-cost line depends on two things:

1. Prices of the factors of production.
2. The total outlay, which a firm has to make on the factors of production.
   

Isoquant

There are many ways of producing a given level of output, We can use a lot of labor with a minimal amount of capital, or we could invest heavily in capital equipment that requires a minimal amount of labor to operate, or any combination in between. For most goods, there are more than just two inputs. For example in agricultural, the amount of land, water, and fertilizer can all be varied to produce different amounts of a crop. An isoquant, in the two input case, is a curve that shows all the ways of combining two inputs so as to produce a given level of output

Marginal Analysis

Economic decisions are made on the basis of margin. The decision about the level of production, level of cost where costs are minimum, level of utility derived by a consumer, level of revenue which maximizes profit for the firm are all made on the basis of marginal analysis. Marginal analysis is used in following ways:

Phases of Business Cycle

A trade cycle passes through the following four phases :

1. Recession:
Recession is characterized by the following:

• High level of general unemployment.
• Maximum fall in the consumers demand.
• Surplus production capacity (unused production capacity).
• Fall in the business profits.
• Fall in in the expectation about the future profits.

2. Recovery:
Following are the symptoms of Recovery:

• Gradual renewl of investments.
• Trend of increase in employment.
• Gradual increase in the consumption of the consumers.
• Increasing trend in the business profits.
• Creation of confidence in the business.
• Either price stability or slow increase.

3.Boom:
Boom is characterized by the following:

• Acceleration in the consumer spending.
• Maximum use of production capacity which creates shortage of labour.
• Production can be increased by labour saving methods of production only.
• Too much increase in the investment expenditure.
• Price increase due to increase in demand.
• Business profits on the highest peek.

4.Recession:
Symptoms of Recessions can be referred as under:

• Fall in the consumption starts.
• Suddenly the existing investments are felt non-profitable stopping the new investment.
• Fall in production.
• Decrease in the level of employment.
• Some business are ruined due to fall in the profits.
• Ar last recession is converted into the severe depression and so a business cycle completes its journey.
  

Optimum factor Combination

A producer always tries to achieve largest volume of output from given outlay on factors such that these factors are combined in an optimal or most efficient way. The producer maximizes his profits and produces a given level of output with least cost combination of factors. This level of least cost combination of factors will be optimum for him.

Oligopoly

• Few Producers.
• Products may be identical or differentiated.
• Producers have some control over price.
• Firms advertise their products to create demand for them.
  

Monopolistic Competition

• There are a large number of sellers.
• Products are differentiated (either real or perceived differences).
• None of the sellers has a large share of the market.
• Sellers have some control over price.
• Firms advertise their products to create demand for them.
  

Monopoly

• There is only one seller.
• A single seller is a price setter.
• A single seller has a complete control over price.
• There are no close substitutes available.
• There are no competitors in the market.
  

Perfect Competition

• There are large number of buyer and sellers.
• Buyers and sellers are price takes.
• Products are homogeneous of identical with no differentiation.
• There are no barriers to entry and exit
• Buyers and sellers are perfectly informed of the market conditions.
  

Market

A market is a mechanism through which buyers and sellers interact and trade goods and services. The combine activities of buying and selling create equilibrium in the market

Price Discrimination

Price Discrimination refers to a tendency in the market where different prices are charged from different sets of customers on factor other than cost. Price Discrimination can be on the basis of regional markets, customer categories, occasions, nature of services etc
Example of price discrimination includes:

1. A Public utility provided at different prices for residential and commerical users
2. Goods exported at below market prices (dumping) in other countries to exhaust the surplus supply.
3. Goods offered at a discount in the discount period.
4. Goods offered at a discount in rivalry to the competitor
5. Market skimming strategy and market penetration strategy in marketing new products.
   

Acceleration Principle

An economic economic theory suggest that as demand or income increases in an economy, so does the investment made by firm. Furthermore, when demand levels result in an excess in demand, firm have two choices as to how to meet demand: they can either raise prices to cause demand to drop, or increase investment to match demand. The accelerator theory proposes that the firms increase their investment to meet the increase in demand.

Effective Demand

John Maynard Keynes developed his theory of Income and Employment on the basis of short period analysis according to which Effective Demand determines the level of income and employment. When the Effective Demand increases, production also increases due to which level of income increases. Consequently, level of employment also increases.It can briefly be said that:

• Employment is the function of national Income

Effective Demand is determined by Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply. According to Keynes, Aggregate Supply does not change in the short period because supply is related to technical level and technical changes do not take place in the short period. This is the reason that Supply Function remains stable in the short period.

Multiplier and Acceleration

The Multiplier principle implies that investment increase output whereas the acceleration principle implies that increases in output will themselves induce increases in investment.
Acceleration principle explains the link between output and capital investment. It states that an increase or decrease in the demand for consumer goods will cause a greater increase or decrease in the demand for machines required to make those goods. In other words, there is a direct relationship between the rate of output of an economy and the level of investment in capital goods

Multiplier

When autonomous expenditure increases, aggregate expenditure and real GDP. but the increase in real GDP is larger than the change in autonomous expenditure. Therefore, we can define multiplier as:
" The Multiplier is an amount by which a change in autonomous expenditure is multiplied to determine a change in equilibrium expenditure and real GDP."

Multiplier

When autonomous expenditure increases, aggregate expenditure increases, and so does equilibrium expenditure and real GDP. But the increase in real GDP is larger than the change in autonomous expenditure. Therefore, we can define multiplier as:
" The multiplier is an amount by which a change in autonomous expenditure is multiplied to determine a change in equilibrium expenditure and real GDP"

Equilibrium

Equilibrium signifies a state of balance between two opposing forces. When two opposite forces interact with each other, the level where their magnitude is equal creates equilibrium in the system. Equilibrium is time specific. Equilibrium can be disturbed by forces acting to disturb the balance.

Equilibrium in Economics is classified into three types:

1. Partial or General Equilibrium
2. Short run or long run equilibrium
3. Stable or unstable equilibrium
   

Financial Economies

To operate any business activity, a firm either small or large needs finance. A large scale firm has a generally greater credibility than a small scale firm. Because of its reputation, a large scale firm can obtain finance from banks and also acquire raw materials on credit.

Commercial Economies

A firm needs raw materials to produce output. A large scale form needs more inputs to produce more outputs i.e: it has to purchase raw material in large quantities to produce more output. A large scale firm can obtain raw materials at a cheaper price if it buys them in abundance. Therefore, cost of production significantly reduces which is a huge advantages.

Micro and Macroeconomics Approach

Both of these approaches are interdependent. We can't say that one is more important than the other. Both of these approaches are essential in the study of economics and complement each other in economic analysis.
E.g: If we want to make a building, we will make individual floor effectively only if we have a whole picture of the building in mind

Macroeconomics

The word "Macro" means large. it may be defined as:

Macroeconomics is the study of economics as a whole. it studies national income, total employment, aggregate income, total production and average prices"
It studies economy in a broad way. It takes into account the totality and aggregate of different performance variable like inflation.

Microeconomics

Microeconomics is the study of all small segment of an economy. It can be defined as:

"Microeconomics is the study of how individuals and business make decisions about producing , exchanging, distributing and consuming particular goods and services and the interaction of those decisions in the market"

Labour Supply

Choosing a Career

Young people should start their life in an orderly fashion and give deserved consideration to the following important factors.
First and foremost is the self assessment of the capability and then pick up and choose what interesting and gives you pleasure and enjoyment. Choose a career in which you can learn and continue to learn enabling satisfaction and high job opportunities.
Pick up a job with a good boss who is competent and can coach and takes pride in subordinates and their development and progress.
Prefer a job which gives you feeling of useless and frowardness and at the same time with honour and prestige where your position goes up and helpful to other.

Product Life Cycle

Products are like living organisms, they are born, they live, and they die, A new product is introduced into the

Product Life Cycle

Products are like living organisms, they are born, they live, and they die, A new product is introduced into the market place, it grows and when it losses appeal it is terminated. Life of product may be extended through packing , branding and labeling techniques, but eventually it is terminated.

Orientation

Orientation of human resources refers to the activities of the orientation divided towards the habitation of the workers. The newcomer is introduced to hold worker and placed with him for certain period to require necessary information about the job he is assigned. Orientation means to show him which way is up.

Some orientation also provide some sort of official orientation. It may be a Lecture Room , a Movie , a group Conference or a personalized tour by a member of the personal department.

Forms of Media Advertising

Following are the some media of advertising :

1. Newspaper :
It is one of the most commonly used form of advertising throughout the world. It is not only economical but also very convenient way to reach the people

2. Radio :
Radio is becoming more and more popular medium advertisement. The most advantageous side in advertising through radio is that it is heard every where.

3. Television :
Television has proved to be the best medium advertisement. No doubt, message through T.V is much more effective than any other medium of advertisement due to its high rate only a big groups or campanies afford for advertisement.

4. Direct Mail :
Through this medium of advertisement letters, circulars, pamphlets, booklet etc, are dispatched by the direct mail to customer or prospective customers at their houses or office

5. Internet
One Internet web pages used for information and advertisement. On web pages some banner present to advertise different products and companies. These type of advertisement is very cheap as compare to other. And now a days web pages advertisement gaining popularity.

Advertising and its Media

American Marketing Association has defined advertising as "Any paid form of non-personal presentation and promotion of ideas, goods or services by an identified sponsors." In Economics advertising refers to the art of making know to the public either the existence of the supply of a commodity or of a want.

Modern Time

In Business , no doubt, is being expanded every day in the modern time due to constant expansion in the production technology and this is the reason that the sole proprietorship business has been facing a sever competition with the partnership or the joint stock company business. This is the fact that whatever the development and expansion takes place in the business, sole proprietorship business will survive in all the times to come. Large scale business in neither feasible nor possible in all the circumstance and occasion

Using of Software Languages

"COBOL" employs business terminology. "FORTRAN" is a widely accepted language for scientific and mathematics use. "RPG" provides an easy method for program. A small computer to write a business report."BASIC" is extensively used by manager , engineer and teaches.

Software

Software consists of the program and the supplemental materials that are used by personal to give the computer hardware its instructions. Software is prepared by expert who provide input in machine language. They are called Programmer. There are three symbolic languages that may be used by the programmer. These are called as "COBOL" , "FORTRAN" and "RPG" or "BASIC".

Computer Hardware and Software

Under Computer system, the term hardware applies to the machinery of computers. Hardware includes all the mechanical, electronic, electrical and magnetic components of computer system. It can be divided into two categories:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. All Supporting devices of the CPU

The CPU controls the sequence and pacing of all operations. it receive information from its input units, shuttles that information into its memory unit, and sends appropriate signals to the output unit which translate the resources for human comprehension.

Computer In Business

Computer represent the greatest technological development of our times. They are the miracle of science that have completely revolutionized that working and operational efficiency of business and industry. They know to control the bank accounts, make airline and listed rammed, prepare payrolls, write cheques and make payments. They can control inventories and overseas much of our research. All theses assigments are done in secondsor even in fractions of second.

Channel of Distribution

The Channel of Distribution are the routes along which good flow from produce to customer. In other words we can describe it as to the course taken in a transfer of title to the commodity constitute its channel of distribution.
We can classify the channel of distribution into two groups

1. Direct Channel
2. In-Direct Channel

Direct Channel :

Producer>>>>>>>>>>>>>Consumer

Indirect Channel:

Producer>>>Retailer>>>Consumer
Producer>>>Wholesaler>>>Retailer>>>Consumer
Producer>>>Middlemen>>>Wholesaler>>>Retailer>>>Consumer

Life Insurance Policy

Life Insurance is fundamentally a co-operative plan which a number of industrial pool together their money and cover risk of life.
A life Insurance policy is, unlike of either a marine or fire insurance, not contract of indemnity. In life insurance the event insured against must happen one day, while in case of marine and fire , the contingency may or may not arise. In a Life Insurance contract, the insurer agreed to pay a stated sum either to the insurance at a stated age or to his insurance at death if earlier. Thus Premium paid in life insurance are returned to the insured at his beneficiary some day, similar in other types of insurance no consideration is per as long as the rest insured agent does happen.

Fire Insurance

Fire Insurance Policy is a contract of indemnity the insurer which takes to indemnify the insured against any loss , insured, according to the term of policy
There are various Fire policies , the following are

1. Special Policy
2. Average Policy
3. Valued Policy
4. Floating Policy
5. Excess Policy
6. Blanket Policy
7. Comprehensive Policy
8. Consequential Policy
9. Reinstatement Policy
   

Insurance

Insurance denotes a contract in the form of the policy between the insurer and the insured, whereby the former undertakes to indemnify the latter against any loss to the insured arising out of contingency as mentioned, In the policy, in exchange of a sum of money known as Premium, paid by the insured to the insurer. In Case of a life insurance policy, however, the insurer, unlike in other types of insurances, undertakes to pay the insured a specified sum after a fixed period, or to his assigned on the happening of death of the insured. Though the latter type of insurance is strictly called " ASSURANCE", while the former one Insurance.

Development In Technology

In modern world, technological development is becoming more and more surprising day by day. New Products emerging from the world's factories and laboratories. The pace of innovations has been so fast that we fails to appreciate just how remarkable many of these developments are. The sight of men walking on the moon, broadcast by Color Television into millions of homes around the world, has made us yawn at things that are only slightly less spectacular

Test Marketing

Test Marketing is used to minimize the risk of product failure. Moreover, it allows marketing manager to expose a product in a natural marketing environment to obtain a measure of its sale performance..

Marketing Mix

A Marketing mix refer to the combination of decision elements in a company's marketing performance. It consist of four major components that of: Product, distribution, production and price. These components are Market Decision Variables.

Market Segmentation

Market segmentation is a process of dividing a total market into market gaps consisting of people , who have relatively similar producer needs. The purpose is to design a marketing mix that more precisely matches the needs of individual in a selected segment or segments. Market segments arise from segmentation process. It is carried to provide greater satisfaction to homogeneous potion of a total market.

Marketing Strategy

Marketing Strategy are concerned with the supply of products at the time. place and price they needed. A Marketing Executive must be quick to spot the appropriate markets and supply them with products. The Executive must think of market trend rather than to push products in the market.

Market Information

Marketing decisions are based on the information collected and imparted with skill. The Information may cover the prices of the articles, the choice and the style of the consumer demand, condition of supply, paying capacity of person to whom goods are deemed to be supplied, consumer behavior and habits , etc

Marketing Functions

Marketing Functions are divided into the following three major groups

(a) The Function of Exchange:
1. Buying (or Assembling)
2. Selling
(b) The Function of Physical Supply:
3. Transporting
4. Warehousing
(c) The Facilitating Functions:
5. Standardization and Grading
6. Market Financing
7. Market Risk
8. Marketing Information and Market Research

Inventry Control

The Term inventory control refers to the act of watching and having proper need of handling of stock of raw material or finished goods. the importance of a skilled and creative controller of stock flow, however, can not be overstated. Neither finished goods should be over stocked nor raw material be under stocked.

Economic Environment

The first rule of a business is to be aware of and respond to the economic environment, because business is greatly influenced by the economy of the country. its operational success depends upon its adjustment and meeting the requirements of the economy

Socialism

Socialism was founded on the basis of MARXIAN thought that:
The State is the main and only culprit of all the economic, political and social evils which factually a group of exploiters. It is, therefore, necessary that the exploited class (labour) of the world should assemble on one plateform for getting the state withered away and to establish the rule of labour

In the light of this facts , Socialism can be defined as under:

Socialism is the social and economic system in which the productive resources are owned by the state and equality is given basic importance. The source of power are common men ( labour and farmers or a proletariats.

Capitalism

The former is called "LEISSEZE FAIRE" policy which promises private ownership while the latter is called State Enterprises or controlled enterprise. In the former one individual initiative prompts production with the profits criterion on the basis of private property. The Individuals successfully establish to operate the system and organize it for their own interest and therefore profit on their own risk with lesser fact or lesser interference from the state known best as CAPITALISM.

There are many factors of Capitalism economy , such as :

1. Private Ownership
2. Management of the Business
3. Securing Capital
4. Production
5. Distribution of Commodities
   

Mixed Economy

Mixed Economy is an economic system which combines in himself the elements of socialism as well as of capitalism. Capitalistic economy operates on the principles of individuals freedom and personal gain. Individuals are free to follow any profession they like and to consume good of their choice. Their wishes are respected by the producers and their sovereignty is well established.

Forms of Economic Systems

Following are the forms of Economic System in Business World

• Capitalism
• Socialism
• Mixed Economy
• Islamic Economics
  

Economic System

Different economist have defined Economics System differently given below:

a: Economic System is an active combination of economic institutions, standard and principles which
transferring all of them into one unit. works for achieving a common goal.

b: Economic system expresses a combination of the members of the society which exploits the natural
resources for the fulfillment of their economic needs

c: Economic System is a logical connection amongst the individuals according to which they keep
themselves busy in production, distribution and exchange of wealth to achieve goods and services.

Joint Stock Companies

Joint Stock Companies are lesser in number . But the size of a joint stock company is comparatively bigger as far as capital investment and manpower employed are concerned. A joint Stock Company is established under the companies ordinance 1984. The funds are collected jointly by all share holders to carry on a particular business.

Partnership

Partnership form of business is a second choice . In partnership , two or more than two persons ( not more than 10 in banking or 20 persons in general business as the case may be) pool up the financial or managerial resources or both to carry on some legal business and agree to distribute profit or loss among themselves in an agreed proportion. Partnership business may be selected for acquaring more finance or managerial talenets as well as to reduce income tax burden

Sole Proprietorship

Sole Proprietorship form of business is very common in our country , Most of small and medium types of business are owned by the individuals who have , of course arranged the finances , place of business , quantity and type of goods to be maintained in stock etc, being a single individuals has resources to organize and manage the business are also limited and restricted.

Defination of Trade

Trade is defined as :
Trade is not only an important part of commerce , but is the central activity in commerce. It includes sale transfer , exchange of good. it does not include other functions of commerce like, Transportation, Insurance , Banking etc etc....

Defination of Commerce

Commerce is defined as:
Commerce is a aggregate of all those of business activities which concerned with sales , exchange , transfer of goods and services .Thus Commerce establish necessary link between producers and consumers,

In other words:
Commerce is the sum total of such activities or processes as make trade Possible

Defination of Business

Business may be defined as :
An activity in which different persons exchange something of value, whether , goods and services for mutual gain or profit (Patterson and Plowman)

In other words it also defined as:
According to Glos-Baker " Business includes those activities in which people, working singly or more often in association with others, strive or produce and distribute the goods and services that are necessary to the well-being comforts and hapiness of individuals and for the benefit of society as whole"

Content of International Business

Concepts , advantages and disadvantages, Obstacles and constraints in International Trade. Types of Tariffs , Concept of Balance of Trade and Balance of Payment, Nature , Objectives and role of Multinational companies in developing countries

Making goods and services Available

Types of Business goods, Inventory Control , Purchasing Decision and policies , Transportation, Marketing needs , Types of warehouse, Advantages and functions of warehousing and Distribution Center....

Content of Capital Market

Nature of Capital Market , role and significance , operation and working of stock Exchange , Impact of Stock Exchange on economy of a country. Investment Banking. Financeing by leasing

Content of Marketing

Basic Concepts , importance ,Marketing Mix. Product and its types, product life cycle, Channels of distribution for consumer and industrial goods , Market Segmentation , sales promotion and advertising , warehousing. Wholesaling and retailing. Middlemen , Role and classification pricing decision and strategy..

Content of Combination

Meaning and Purposes , Types of Combination , Holding and subsidiary companies , Joint Venture , Franchising and Trade Association

Content ofJoint Stock Company

Formation and Incorporation, Memorandum and Article of Association, Prospectus , Shareholders, Director meetings and winding up , Co-operatives..

Forms of Business Organization

Sole proprietorship, partnership - Classification, Rights, duties and Liabilities of Partners Dissolution of Partnership.

Content of Business

Nature, scope and importance. Problems of Business functions and qualities of businessman. Business Environment and social responsibility. Role of Business in Economics system. Business under private and public ownerships..

Introduction to Business

In this Blog, You will find all kind of business hints, articles, information, and much much more....

About Us

My name is Muhammad Asim i am a student of commerce in University of Karachi. My deeply interest in online earning . This blog contains some useful content about any kind of knowledge. Time to Time will post more knowledge of any kind of topic. if you want something interesting or something informative then i am Looking for your suggestions and comments.

Contact Us

If you have any query or question about my blog please feel free to contact us by email at zippingo123@gmail.com.

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